𝐁𝐡𝐮𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐀𝐢𝐫 𝐏𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐞, 𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐬 𝐔𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐈𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐆𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫-𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

…𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂 𝒈𝒂𝒑𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒊𝒓-𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒈𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆.

By Sonam Choden

A recent Regional Workshop on Air Pollution, Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI), and Health, organised by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), highlighted that air quality concerns are intensifying, particularly in urban centres such as Thimphu, Phuentsholing, and Gelephu. Vehicle emissions, construction dust, and the continued use of biomass fuels are among the major contributors to this trend.

Although the country has a relatively strong air quality monitoring system, data from the National Environment Commission (NEC) show that concentrations of fine particulate matter- PM with diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller and PM with diameter of 10 micrometers or smaller ((PM2.5 and PM10) in Thimphu frequently exceed World Health Organization (WHO) limits, especially during the dry winter months. This poses serious health risks, particularly for women, children, and low income communities already facing unequal living and working conditions.

PM2.5 and PM10 are types of particulate matter, which are tiny particles suspended in the air that can affect human health. PM2.5 refers to fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or smaller, small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, increasing the risk of respiratory illnesses, heart disease, and reduced life expectancy. PM10, on the other hand, includes particles up to 10 micrometers in diameter, which are larger and primarily affect the upper respiratory tract, causing asthma, bronchitis, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat.

While PM10 encompasses both coarse and fine particles, PM2.5 is the smaller and more harmful fraction, often originating from vehicle emissions, industrial activity, and smoke from burning biomass, whereas PM10 also comes from dust, construction, and pollen.

Prolonged exposure to polluted air has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses. Smoke from firewood and yak dung, along with dust from roads and construction, increases the risk of asthma, bronchitis, and chronic respiratory disease. Women and children, who spend more time near household stoves, are among the most affected. Experts note that long term exposure not only worsens heart disease but also reduces life expectancy, making air pollution both a social and public health concern.

In rural and peri urban areas, many households continue to rely on traditional firewood stoves and yak dung for heating and cooking. Families living near industrial sites or along busy roads face additional exposure to dust and smoke. A resident of Gidakom, who has lived near the mining area for three years, said the dust problem is part of daily life. “When I first settled here, I would cough a lot, and the dust even gets inside the house,” she said. “Now it feels normal, but I know breathing this air every day can’t be good for my health.”
In Thimphu, residents are beginning to voice similar concerns. “The air feels heavier now, especially during winter,” said a shopkeeper in Babesa.

This pattern of exposure reflects national emission trends. Household energy use remains the largest contributor to air pollution, accounting for 32.8 percent of total emissions, followed by industry at 13.9 percent, anthropogenic dust at 10.6 percent, agriculture at 10.2 percent, and the energy sector at 8.2 percent. Action research by ICIMOD and the Jigme Singye Wangchuck School of Law in Haa District shows that improved smokeless mud stoves and Himalayan Rocket Stoves can reduce fuelwood use by up to 50 percent while significantly lowering indoor exposure to PM2.5 and black carbon.

Despite the growing use of LPG, induction, and electric cookers, firewood and yak dung remain the main fuels for residential heating and livestock feed preparation, particularly in highland areas such as Lingzhi. This continued dependence on traditional fuels highlights the need to expand clean cooking technologies and improve access to sustainable energy, especially for low income households.

According to the Annual Health Bulletin 2025, acute respiratory infections accounted for more than 80 percent of all notifiable diseases in 2024, with over 126,000 cases reported nationwide. While the report does not directly attribute these illnesses to air pollution, the high burden of respiratory diseases alongside rising particulate levels indicates the need for stronger research connecting environmental exposure with health outcomes.

UNICEF (2024) estimates that air pollution contributes to about 13 percent of neonatal mortality in Bhutan and remains a significant factor in several major diseases. Beyond domestic emissions, transboundary pollution is also a growing threat. A 2023 study on the sources of ambient air pollution found that India contributed 44 percent of PM 2.5, followed by Bangladesh with 19 percent, Bhutan with 19 percent, and China with 16 percent, highlighting the importance of regional cooperation in air quality management.

Despite advancements in environmental data collection, Bhutan still lacks integration between air quality and health datasets. Health records are rarely disaggregated by gender, occupation, or income, limiting the understanding of population specific vulnerabilities. The absence of long term data linking air pollution exposure with specific diseases makes it difficult to design targeted interventions or allocate resources effectively.

The country’s Constitution and the Gross National Happiness (GNH) framework emphasize ecological balance and citizen wellbeing. The National Environment Strategy and the 13th Five Year Plan recognise air quality as a key development issue, yet the integration of gender equality and social inclusion principles remains limited. Experts recommend a more inclusive approach, including the creation of a national Air Pollution, Health and Inclusivity Database, expansion of clean energy programmes for low income households, and tailored awareness campaigns for remote and less literate communities.

Bhutan’s achievements in environmental protection remain globally significant. However, rising urban pollution and persistent indoor smoke in rural homes show that environmental protection alone does not ensure equitable health outcomes. Strengthening data integration, investing in clean household energy, and embedding inclusivity into environmental policies will allow Bhutan to address both the visible and invisible dimensions of air pollution.

Integrating gender equality and social inclusion into air pollution governance is essential not only for improving air quality but also for advancing health equity. As the country moves forward, its challenge will be to extend the promise of GNH to every breath its citizens take, ensuring that clean air becomes a shared right for all.